Nomenclature
Pinus sect.
Tsuga Endl., Syn. Conif. 83. 1847.
Tsuga (Endl.) Carrière, Traité Conif. 185. 1855.
TYPE: Tsuga sieboldii Carrière designated by
Britton & Brown (1913), or Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière designated by Rehder (1949).
Key to the species of Tsuga
List of Tsuga Species
References to Tsuga
- Abbott, H. G. 1962. Tree seed preferences of mice and voles in the Northeast. J. Forest. 60(2): 97-9.
- Abrams, M. D.; Orwig, D. A. 1996. A 300-year history of disturbance and canopy recruitment for co-occurring white pine and hemlock on the Allegheny Plateau, U.S.A. J. Ecol. 84: 353-63.
- Adams, M. S.; Loucks, O. L. 1971. Summer air temperatures as a factor affecting net photosynthesis and distribution of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis L. (Carriere)) in southwestern Wisconsin. Amer. Midl. Naturalist 85: 1-10.
- Avery, G. S.; Creighton, H. B.; Hock, C. W. 1940. Annual rings in hemlocks and their relation to environmental factors. Amer. J. Bot. 27: 825-31.
- Baldwin, H. 1934. Further notes on the germination of hemlock seed. J. Forest. 32: 99-100.
- Beatty, S. W. 1984. Influence of microtopography and canopy species on spatial patterns of forest understory plants. Ecology 65: 1406-19.
- Bentz, S. E. et.al. 2002. Hybridization and self-compatibility in controlled pollinations of eastern North American and asian hemlock (Tsuga) species. J. Arboric. 28: 200-205.
- Bhiry, N.; Filion, L. 1996. Mid-holocene hemlock decline in eastern North America linked with phytophagus insect activity. Quatern. Res. 45: 312-20.
- Black, B. A.; Abrams, M. D. 2005. Disturbance history and climate response in an old-growth hemlock-white pine forest, central Pennsylvania. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 132: 103-114.
- Black, R. A.; Mack, R. N. 1976. Tsuga canadensis in Ohio: synecological and phytogeographical relationships. Vegetatio 32: 11-9.
- Boettcher, S. E.; Kalisz, P. J. 1990. Single-tree influence on soil properties in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. Ecology 71: 1365-72.
- Borgmann, K. L.; Waller, D. M.; Rooney, T. P. 1999. Does balsam fir (Abies balsamea) facilitate the recruitment of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)? Amer. Midl. Naturalist 141: 391-397.
- Bourdeau, P. F.; Laverick, M. L. 1958. Tolerance and photosynthetic adaptability to light intensity in white pine, red pine, hemlock, and ailanthus seedlings. Forest Sci. 4: 196-207.
- Britton, Nathaniel L. 1906. The Hemlock Grove on the banks of the Bronx River, and what it signifies: With a review of the history and literature of the hemlock tree. Trans. Bronx Hist. Soc. 1: 5-15.
- Brown, J. H.; Castaneda, C. A.; Hindle, R. J. 1982. Floristic dynamics of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) communities in Rhode Island. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 109: 385-91.
- Buchholz, J. T. 1948. Generic and subgeneric distribution of the Coniferales. Bot. Gaz. 110: 80-91.
- Burkle, L. A.; Logan, B. A. 2003. Seasonal acclimation of photosynthesis in eastern hemlock and partridgeberry in different light environments. Northeastern Naturalist 10: 1-16.
- Butts, D.; Buchholz, J. T. 1940. Cotyledon numbers in conifers. Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci. 33: 58-62.
- Carey, J. H. 1993. Tsuga canadensis. ()
- Castaneda, C. A. 1976. Some aspects of the ecology of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.) in Rhode Island. M.S. Thesis Univ. Rhode Island,
- Charney, J. D. 1980. Hemlock-hardwood community relationships in the Highlands of southeastern New York. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 107: 249-57.
- Clark, J.; Gibbs, R. D. 1957. Studies in tree physiology. IV. Further investigations of seasonal changes in moisture content of certain Canadian forest trees. Canad. J. Bot. 35: 219-53.
- Clepper, H. E. 1934. Hemlock, the state tree of Pennsylvania. Dept. Forests and Waters Bull. No. 52, Harrisburg, PA.
- Coffman, M. S. 1978. Eastern hemlock germination influenced by light, germination media, and moisture content. Michigan Bot. 17: 99-103.
- Cook, D. B. 1941. Five seasons' growth of conifers. Ecology 22(3): 285-96.
- Cook, E. R.; Jacoby, G. C. 1977. Tree-ring drought relationships in the Hudson Valley, New York. Science 198(4315): 399-401. (Pinus, Quercus, & Tsuga used for dendrochronology)
- Davidson, D. W.; Davis, R. M. 1964. Further observations on living stumps of Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. (hemlock) in northern New Jersey. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 91: 233-4.
- Davis, M. B.; Woods, K. D.; Webb, S. L.; Futyma, R. P. 1986. Dispersal versus climate: expansion of Fagus and Tsuga into the upper Great Lakes region. Vegetatio 67: 93-103.
- Doccola, J. J. et.al. 2007. Efficacy and duration of trunk-injected Imidacloprid in the management of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Arbor. Urban For. 33: 12-21.
- Doyle, J.; Kam, A. 1944. Pollination in Tsuga pattoniana and in species of Abies and Picea. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 24: 43-62.
- Doyle, J.; O'Leary, M. 1935. Pollination in Tsuga, Cedrus, Pseudotsuga, and Larix. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 24: 43-62.
- Eckenwalder, J. E. 2009. Conifers of the world. Timber Press, Portland, OR. , 720 pages. (ISBN 9780881929744)
- Evans, A. M.; Gregoire, T. G. 2007. A geographically variable model of hemlock woolly adelgid spread. Biological Invasions 9: 369-382.
- Ewers, F. W.; Zimmermann, M. H. 1984. The hydraulic architecture of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Canad. J. Bot. 62: 940-6.
- Fajvan, M. A.; Seymour, R. S. 1993. Canopy stratification, age structure, and development of multicohort stands of eastern white pine, eastern hemlock, and red spruce. Canad. J. Forest Res. 23(9): 1799-809.
- Farjon, A. 1990. A bibliography of conifers. Koeltz Scientific Books, Königstein, Germany.
- Farr, P. M.; Tyndall, R. W. 1992. Expansion of an eastern hemlock forest in Maryland. Castanea 57: 190-5.
- Farwell, O. A. 1914. The correct name for the hemlock spruce. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 41: 621-9.
- Fischer, R.; Dengler, N. G. 1977. Mesophyll cell walls in hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. Canad. J. Bot. 55(11): 1510-5.
- Fitschen. 1929. Die Gattung Tsuga. Mitt. Deutsch. Dendrol. Ges. 1929: 1-12.
- Foster, D. R.; Zebryk, T. M. 1993. Long-term vegetation dynamics and disturbance history of a Tsuga-dominated forest in New England. Ecology 74: 982-98.
- Fowler, J. A. 1957. Hemlock on the coastal plain of Maryland. Atlantic Naturalist 12: 232-4.
- Friesner, R. C.; Potzger, J. E. 1932. Factors concerned in hemlock reproduction in Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 2: 133-49.
- Frothingham, E. H. 1915. The eastern hemlock.
- Gager, S. 1907. The absence of undergrowth in the Hemlock Forest. J. New York Bot. Gard. 8: 237-40.
- Gambles, R. L. 1973. The leaf anatomy of Tsuga canadensis. M.S. Thesis Univ. of Toronto, Toronto,
- Gambles, R. L.; Dengler, N. G. 1974. The leaf anatomy of hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. Canad. J. Bot. 52(5): 1049-56.
- Goder, H. A. 1955. A phytosociological study of Tsuga canadensis near the termination of its range in Wisconsin. Ph.D. Dissertation Univ. Wisconsin, Madison, WI,
- Grant, D.; Hart, A. C. 1961. Effect of seedbed preparation on natural reproduction of spruce and hemlock under dense shade.
- Hanna, W. J.; Grant, C. L. 1962. Spectrochemical analysis of the foliage of certain trees and ornamentals for 23 elements. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 89: 293-302.
- Harper, R. M. 1919. The supposed southern limit of the eastern hemlock. Torreya 19: 198-199.
- Hart, J. L.; Shankman, D. 2005. Disjunct eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) stands at its southern range boundary. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 132: 602-612.
- Havill, N. P. et.al. 2008. Phylogeny and biogeography of Tsuga (Pinaceae) inferred from nuclear ribosomal ITS and chloroplast DNA sequence data. Syst. Bot. 33: 478-489.
- Henry, J. D.; Swan, J. M. A. 1974. Reconstructing forest history from live and dead plant material - an approach to the study of forest succession in southwest New Hampshire. Ecology 55: 772-83.
- Hett, J. M.; Loucks, O. L. 1976. Age structure models of balsam fir and eastern hemlock. J. Ecol. 64: 1029-44.
- Hett, J. M.; Loucks, O. L. 1968. Age structure models of balsam fir and eastern hemlock. J. Ecol. 64: 1029-44.
- Hibbs, D. E. 1981. Leader growth and architecture of three North American hemlocks. Canad. J. Bot. 59: 476-80.
- Holmes, S. 1932. A bisporangiate cone of Tsuga canadensis. Bot. Gaz. 93: 100-2.
- Hotchkiss, A. T.; Van Stockum, R. R.; Van Osdol, B. 1976. New stations for Tsuga canadensis in southern Indiana. Castanea 41: 338-42.
- Hume, E. P. 1971. Hemlock: graceful conifer. Morton Arbor. Quart. 7(4): 37-41.
- Hupp, C. R. 1983. Seedling establishment on a landslide site. Castanea 48: 89-98.
- Ingwell, L. et.al. 2009. Intraspecific variation in Tsuga canadensis foliar chemistry. Northeastern Naturalist 16: 585-594.
- Jenkins, C. F. 1946. Hemlock- queen of the conifers. Arnoldia (Jamaica Plain) 6: 49-60.
- Kavanagh, K.; Kellman, M. 1986. Performance of Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. at the center and northern edge of its range: a comparison. J. Biogeogr. 13: 145-57.
- Kennedy, G.; Bergeron, S. 1991. Tree rings as monitors of heavy metal air pollution histories. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 151: 337-344.
- Kessell, S. R. 1979. Adaptation and dimorphism in eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Amer. Naturalist 113(3): 333-50.
- Krueger, L. M.; Peterson, C. J. 2006. Effects of white-tailed deer on Tsuga canadensis regeneration: evidence of microsites as refugia from browsing. Amer. Midl. Naturalist 156: 353-362.
- Lei, T. T. et.al. 2002. Effects of Rhododendron maximum thickets on tree seed dispersal, seedling morphology, and survivorship. Int. J. Plant Sci. 163: 991-1000.
- Li, L. C. 1988. The comparative karyotypic studies in some species of Tsuga (Pinaceae). Guihaia 8(4): 324-8. (In Chinese; English summary)
- Logan, K. T. 1973. Growth of tree seedlings as affected by light intensity V. White ash, beech, eastern hemlock, and general conclusions.
- Long, Z. T.; Carson, W. P.; Peterson, C. J. 1998. Can disturbance create refugia from herbivores: an example with hemlock regeneration on treefall mounds. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 125: 165-8.
- Manning, W. J. 1971. Effects of limestone dust on leaf condition, foliar disease incidence, and leaf surface microflora of native plants. Environmental Pollution 2: 69-76.
- Marks, P. L.; Gardescu, S.; Hitzhusen, G. E. 1999. Windstorm damage and age structure in an old growth forest in central New York. Northeastern Naturalist 6: 165-176.
- Marshall, R. 1927. The growth of hemlock before and after release from suppression.
- McManus, K. A.; Shields, K. S.; Souto, D. R. (eds.) (2000): 2000. Proceedings: Symposium on sustainable management of hemlock ecosystems in eastern North America. General Technical Report NE-267. USDA Forest Service, Newtown Square, PA. , 237 pages. (June 22-24, 1999, Durham, New Hampshire)
- Merkle, M.; Napp-Zinn, K. 1977. Anatomische Untersuchungen an Pinaceen-Deckschuppen. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 98: 549-72. (In German, English summary)
- Merrill, P. H.; Hawley, R. C. 1924. Hemlock: its place in the sylviculture of the southern New England forest. Bull. Yale Univ. School Forest. 12
- Miles, M. C.; Smith, E. C. 1960. A study of the origin of hemlock forests in southwestern Nova Scotia. Forest. Chron. 36: 375-92.
- Millet, J. et.al. 1998. Plagiotropic architectural development of four tree species of the temperate forest. Canad. J. Bot. 76: 2100-2118.
- Mladenoff, D. J.; Stearns, F. 1993. Eastern hemlock regeneration and deer browsing in the northern Great Lakes region: a re-examination and model simulation. Conserv. Biol. 7: 889-900.
- Montgomery, M. E. 1997. Hemlock wooly adelgid: history, biology, and control. In: Proceedings, U.S. Department of Agriculture interagency gypsy moth research forum 1996; 1996 January. USDA, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Exp. Sta., Radnor, PA. , 56. Abstract pages.
- Montgomery, M. E. 1999. Biological controls for the hemlock woolly adelgid. In: Proceedings, USDA interagency research forum on gypsy moth and other invasive species 1999. USDA, Forest Service, Radnor, PA. , (Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-266)
- Murray, E. 1984. Notae spermatophytae no. 4: unum minutum monographum generis Tsuga. Kalmia 14: 17-9.
- Murrill, W. A. 1900. The development of the archegonium and fertilization in the hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis Carr.). Ann. Bot. 14: 583-607.
- Nienstaedt, H.; Olson, J. S. 1961. Effects of photoperiod and source on seedling growth of eastern hemlock. Forest Sci. 7: 81-96.
- Niklas, K. J.; U., K. T. P. 1983. Conifer ovulate cone morphology: implications on pollen impaction patterns. Amer. J. Bot. 70(4): 568-77.
- Nilsen, E. T. et.al. 1999. Inhibition of seedling survival under Rhododendron maximum (Ericaceae): could allelopathy be a cause? Amer. J. Bot. 86: 1597-1605.
- Northeastern Center for Forest Health Research. 1996. Hemlock. ()
- Norwacki, G. J.; Abrams, M. D. 1994. Forest composition, structure, and disturbance history of the Alan Seeger Natural Area, Huntington County, Pennsylvania. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 121(3): 277-91.
- Olson, J. S.; Stearns, F. W.; Niensteadt, H. 1959. Eastern hemlock seeds and seedlings response to photoperiod and temperature. Bulletin 620. (New Haven, CT)
- Olson, J.; Nienstaedt, H. 1953. Hemlock in Connecticut. [CT Agric. Exp. Sta.]. Frontiers Pl. Sci. 6(1)
- Olson, J.; Nienstaedt, H. 1957. Photoperiod and chilling control growth of hemlock. Science 125: 492-4.
- Orwig, D. A.; Foster, D. R. 1998. Forest response to the introduced hemlock woolly adelgid in southern New England, USA. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 125: 60-73.
- Orwig, D. A.; Foster, D. R. 1998. Ecosystem response to an imported pathogen: the hemlock woolly adelgid. Arnoldia (Jamaica Plain) 58: 41-44.
- Paratley, R. D. 1986. Vegetation-environment relations in a conifer swamp in central New York. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 113: 357-371.
- Parker, J. 1961. Seasonal changes in cold resistance of some northeastern woody evergreens. J. Forest. 59(2): 108-11.
- Pielou, E. C. 1988. The world of northern evergreens. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. , 174 pages.
- Pillai, A. 1964. Root apical organization in gymnosperms- some conifers. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 91: 1-13.
- Prager, E. M.; Fowler, D. P.; Wilson, A. C. 1976. Rates of evolution in conifers (Pinaceae). Evolution 30: 637-49.
- Price, R. A. 1989. The genera of Pinaceae in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 70: 247-305.
- Raupp, M. et.al. 2008. Efficacy of foliar applications, trunk injections, and soil drenches in reducing populations of elongate hemolck scale in eastern hemlock. Arbor. Urban For. 34: 325-329.
- Rehder, A. A. 1915. The name of the hemlock spruce. Rhodora 17(195): 59-62. (see reply by O.A. Farwell, Rhodora 17(201):164-168. 1915. see also I. Tidestrom 1918.)
- Robinson, W. J. 1909. Experiments on the effect of the soil of the hemlock grove of the New York Botanical Garden upon seedlings. J. New York Bot. Gard. 10: 81-7.
- Rodich, R. T. 1989. Hemlock migration in the upper Great Lakes region. Bull. American Conifer Soc. 7: 1-4.
- Rogers, R. S. 1980. Hemlock stands from Wisconsin to Nova Scotia: Transitions in understory composition along a floristic gradient. Ecology 61(1): 178-93.
- Rogers, R. S. 1978. Forests dominated by hemlock (Tsuga canadensis): distribution as related to site and postsettlement history. Canad. J. Bot. 56(7): 843-54.
- Rooney, T. P. 2001. Deer impacts on forest ecosystems: A North American perspective. Forestry (Oxford) 74: 201-208.
- Rooney, T. P.; Dress, W. J. 1997. Patterns of plant diversity in overbrowsed primary and mature secondary hemlock-northern hardwood forest stands. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 124: 43-51.
- Royle, D.; Lathrop, R. 1996. Mapping eastern hemlock decline using Landsat Thematic Mapper data. (Abstract)
- Rudolf, P. O. 1929. A study of the seedling root systems of certain forest trees. M.S. Thesis Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY60 p.
- Santee, W. R.; Monk, C. D. 1981. Stem diameter and dry weight relationships in Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 108: 320-3.
- Sears, P. B. 1942. Postglacial migration of five forest genera. Amer. J. Bot. 29: 684-91.
- Solomon, D. S.; Leak, W. B. 1994. Migration of tree species in New England based on elevational and regional analysis.
- St. Hilaire, L. R.; Leopold, D. J. 1995. Conifer seedling distribution in relation to microsite conditions in a central New York forested minerotrophic peatland. Canad. J. Forest Res. 5: 261-9. (French summary. See also St. Hilaire, 1994. M.S. thesis, SUNY, Syracuse, NY.)
- Stearns, F.; Olson, J. 1958. Interactions of photoperiod and temperature affecting seed germination in Tsuga canadensis. Amer. J. Bot. 45: 53-8.
- Swihart, R. K.; Picone, P. M. 1998. Selection of mature growth stages of coniferous browse in temperate forests by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Amer. Midl. Naturalist 139: 269-74.
- Taylor, R. J. 1971. Phytochemical relationships in the genus Tsuga. Amer. J. Bot. 58(5): 466. (Abstract)
- Tidestrom, I. 1918. Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. Rhodora 20(238): 185-8. (follow up to Rehder & Farwell, 1915. see Farwell's reply in Rhodora 21(246):108-109. 1919.)
- Tyree, M. T.; Benis, M.; Dainty, J. 1973. The water relations of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). III. The temperature dependence of water exchange in a pressure bomb. Canad. J. Bot. 51(8): 1537-43.
- Tyree, M. T.; Caldwell, C.; Dainty, J. 1975. The water relations of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). V. The localization of resistances to bulk water flow. Canad. J. Bot. 53: 1078-84.
- Tyree, M. T.; Cheung, Y. N. S.; MacGregor, M. E.; Talbot, A. J. B. 1978. The characteristics of seasonal and ontogenetic changes in the tissue-water relations of Acer, Populus, Tsuga, and Picea. Canad. J. Bot. 56(6): 635-47.
- Tyree, M. T.; Dainty, J. 1973. The water relations of hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). II. The kinetics of water exchange between symplast and apoplast. Canad. J. Bot. 51(8): 1481-9.
- Tyrrell, L. E.; Crow, T. R. 1994. Structural characteristics of old-growth hemlock-hardwood forests in relation to age. Ecology 75: 370-86.
- USDA Forest Service. 2001. Hemlock woolly adelgid web site.
- Wang, C.; Perlin, M. H.; et al. et.al. 1997. Chloroplast DNA polymorphisms in Tsuga canadensis and Tsuga caroliniana. Canad. J. Forest Res. 27: 1329-35.
- Ward, H. A.; McCormick, L. H. et.al. 1982. Eastern hemlock allelopathy. Forest Sci. 28: 681-686.
- Warrillow, M.; Mou, P. 1999. Ice storm damage to forest tree species in the ridge and valley region of southwestern Virginia. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 126: 147-158.
- Webb, R. E.; Frank, J. R.; Raupp, M. J. 2003. Eastern hemlock recovery from hemlock woolly adelgid damage following imidacloprid therapy. J. Arboric. 29: 298-301.
- Whitney, G. G. 1982. A demographic analysis of the leaves of open and shade grown Pinus strobus L. and Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. New Phyt. 90: 447-53.
- Whitney, G. G. 1990. The history and status of the hemlock-hardwood forests of the Allegheny Plateau. J. Ecol. 78: 443-58.
- Willis, G. L.; Coffman, M. S. 1975. Composition, structure and dynamics of climax stands of eastern hemlock and sugar maple in the Huron Mountains, Michigan.